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Introductory Notes to a Course on Chinese Sources of India–China Relations

Haraprasad Ray is at Flat A3, ONOBIN Apartment, 64, Santoshpur Avenue, Kolkata 700075. Email: haraprasadray{at}rediffmail.com

These notes with short bibliographies to the lectures deal with the wide panorama of Chinese civilization and India–China relations. They are arranged lecture-wise to be followed by full-length papers at a later date. The first five lectures which form the background are followed by dynasty-wise analyses of the topics in the next five. We hope these notes and their bibliographies will acquaint the budding Sinologists as well as generalists with the vast dimensions of China study and help the concerned scholars prepare for the gallimaufry that is the India–China interface.

References

• Dubs, Homer H., ‘ The Reliability of Chinese Histories ’, Far Eastern Quarterly, Vol. VI, No. 1, 1946, pp. 23–43 .
• Gardner, Charles S., Chinese Traditional Historiography ( Harvard University Press , 2nd edition, 1961).
• Beasley, W.G. and E.G. Pulleybank (Eds), Historians of China and Japan ( London: Oxford university Press , 1961), pp. 78–94.
• Franke, Wolfgang, An Introduction to the Sources of Ming History ( Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press , 1968), pp. 1–15.
• Gardner, Charles S., Chinese Traditional Historiography ( Harvard University Press , 2nd edition, 1961).
• Tan Chung, ‘ The Textual Tradition of China ’, Journal of the School of Languages, J.N.U., Vol. I, 1990, pp. 183–207 .
• Allen, Thomas B. ‘The Silk Road's Lost World’, National Geographic, March 1996, pp. 44–51.
• ‘Collected Papers of International Con Famen Buddhist Studies’, Renwen Zazhi (Journal on Humanities), enlarged edition, 1993, pp. 18–20, 82–83 (in Chinese).
• Ganguli, O.C. ‘ Chinese and Indian Art: Some Parallelism ’, The Sino-Indian Journal, Vol. I, No. 1, July 1947, pp. 53–57 .
• Lindsay, J.H., ‘ The Makara in Early Chinese Buddhist Sculptures ’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (G.B.), Vol. 3, Parts 3&4, October 1951, pp. 134–38 .
• Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang. An Exhibition of Buddhist Cave Paintings from China ( New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts , 1991), 26 pp.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘Indian settlements in China—An Exploration of the Phenomenon of Indian Diaspora from AD 1015 (The Chola Period) to 1487 (End of Chenghua Reign in China)’, in K.S. Mathew (Ed.), Indian Ocean and Cultural Interaction (AD 1400–1800) ( Pondicherry: Pondicherry University , 1996), pp. 54–65.
• Subramaniam, T.N., ‘A Tamil Colony in Medieval China’, in R. Nagaswami (Ed.), South Indian Studies ( Madras: Madras Society for Archaeological, Historical and Epigraphical Research , 1978), pp. 1–52.
• Xiang Da, ‘Tangdai Kanshu Kao’ (A Study of Printing of Books during the Tang Dynasty), in Xiang Da, Tangdai Changan Yu Xiyu Wenming (Changan of the Tang Dynasty and its Intercourse with Civilization in the West) ( Beijing: Sanlian Bookshop , 1957), pp. 117–35.
• Zhu Changli, ‘ Nanfang sichouzhilu yu Zhong-Yin-Mian jingji wenhua jiaoliu ’ (The Southern Silk Route and Economic and Cultural Intercourse between China, India and Myanmar), Dongnan Ya (South-East Asia), Vol. 3, 1991, pp. 14–15 .
• Zuo Boyang (tr.), Recent Discoveries in Chinese Archaeology ( Beijing: Foreign Languages Press , 1981).
• Barkataki, S., The Tribes of Assam ( New Delhi: National Book Trust , 1973).
• Faches, Stephen, Aboriginal Tribes in India ( New Delhi: Macmillan India , 1973).
• Fang Guoyu, ‘A Brief Account of the Ethnic Groups in Southwest China from the Warring States Period to Early Days of the Han Dynasty’, Collected Papers of Yunnan Institute of History (Yunnan Lishi Yanjiu Suo, Yanjiu Jikan) (in Chinese), 1982.
• History and Annals of the Va Nationality, Ed. by the Institute for Nationalities, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1963 (in Chinese).
• Hodson, T.C., The Meiteis, 2nd edition ( London: David Nutt , 1908).
• Horam, M., The Naga Polity ( Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation , 1975).
• Playfair, A., The Garos, 2nd edition ( Guwahati: United Publishers , 1998).
• Short History and Annals of the Yi Nationality, Ed. by the Institute for Nationalities, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1963.
• Tan Chung and Haraprasad Ray, ‘ Trans-Himalayan Multinational Habitat ’, Indian Horizons (Special Issue: ‘India and China’), Vol. 43, Nos 1–3, 1994, pp. 291–312 .
• Tong Enzheng, Gudaide Bashu (Ancient Ba and Shu [Modern Sichuan Province]) ( Chengdu: People's Publishing House of Sichuan , 1979).
• Hsu Hu, ‘ Buddhist Temples in China ’, Sino-Indian Studies, Vol. IV, No. 1, 1951, pp. 1–17 .
• Tan Chung (Ed.), Dunhuang Art through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie ( New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts , 1994.
• Guy, John, ‘The Lost Temples of Nagapattinam and Quanzhou; A Study in Sino-Indian Relations’, Silk Road Art and Archaeology, Institute of Silk Road Studies, Kamakura, III, 1993/94, pp. 291–310.
• Huang Xinchuan, ‘Hinduism and China’, Assembly of World's Religions, 15–21 August, 1990, San Francisco, Theme Group, One D .
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘Indian Settlements in China: An Exploration of the Phenomenon of Indian Diaspora from AD 1015 (The Chola period) to 1487 (End of Chenghua Reign in China)’, in K.S. Mathew (Ed.), Indian Ocean and Cultural Interaction (AD 1400–1800) ( Pondicherry: Pondicherry University , 1996), pp. 52–81.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ In China's Temple City ’, The Hindu, 21 April 1991.
• Yang Qinzhang, ‘ Dui Quanzhou Shipo Diaoxiangde tantao ’ (Siva in the Sculptures found at Quanzhou), Nanya Yanjiu (South Asian Studies), No. 1, 1984, pp. 7–15 .
• Yang Qinzhang, ‘ Quanzhou Yindujiao Bishinushen xingxiang shike ’ (Vishnu Statue in the Hindu Sculptures at Quanzhou), Shijie Zongjiao Yanjiu (Studies in World Religions), No. 1, 1988, pp. 96–105 .
• Yang Qinzhang, ‘Yuandai Quanzhou yu Nan Yindu guanxi xinzheng’ (New Evidence of Cultural Contacts between Quanzhou and Southern India during the Yuan Dynasty), in Zhongguo Yu Haishang Sichouzhilu (China and the Maritime Silk Route) ( Fuzhou: Fujian People's Publishing Company , 1991), pp. 194–207.
• Fan Ye, Hou Hanshu (History of the Later Han Dynasty) (AD 450). (A few chapters translated by E. Chavannes). juan 88 (Old traditional edition. juan No. 118), included in Geng Yinzeng, op. cit., pp. 29–33. Translation of the South Indian portion is given in K.A. Nilkanta Sastri, Foreign Notices of South India from Megasthenes to Ma Huan ( Madras: University of Madras , 1939, reprinted 1972), pp. 10–11.
• Hanshu (History of the Han Dynasty) by Ban Gu (History of the Former Han Dynasty from 206 BC to AD 24) (Zhonghua Shuju edition, reprinted 1975), chapter-juans 28 B, 61, 95, 96 A and B. (All these juans, including those for Shiji, are included partly or wholly in Vol. I of Zhongguo Zaijizhong Nanya Shiliao Huibian, Shang (Collection of South Asian Historical Materials from Chinese Sources), Ed. by Geng Yinzeng, Peking Universty (Shanghai Guji Chuban she [Shanghai Old Classics Publishing Company ]), Vol. I, 1994, pp. 1–4.)
• Hulsewe, A.F.P. and M.A.N. Loewe, China in Central Asia: The Early Stage: 125BC-AD. 23 ( Leiden: E.J. Brill , 1979). This extremely well researched work gives a translation of J. 61, 96 A and B of the Hanshu dealing with the Central Asian tribes, and includes a useful Introduction. The notes are well researched and provide up-to-date data on hitherto undeciphered terms.
• Mukherjee, B.N., The Rise and Fall of the Kushana Empire ( Calcutta: Firma K.L.M. , 1988). This gives a comparative analysis and fuller treatment of the Kushana phase of India.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ The Identity of Huang-chih; An Ancient Indian Kingdom in Intimate Contact with Han China ’, The Indian Historical Review, Vol. XVII, Nos 1–2, July 1990 and January 1991, pp. 1–34 .
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ The Southern Silk Route from China to India—An Approach from India ’, China Report, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1995, pp. 177–96 .
• Sima Qian, Shiji (Records of the Historian) (Zhonghua Book Company, reprinted 1975, Zhonghua Shuju edition), Chapter-juans 110, 111, 116 and 123.
• Watson, Burton (Ed. and Tr.), Records of the Grand Historian of China (translated from the Shihchi of Ssu-ma Ch'ien) ( New York & London: Columbia University Press , 1961), Vol. I: Early years of the Han Dynasty, 209 to 141 BC, Vol. II: The Age of Emperor Wudi 140 to Circa 100 BC.
• Zurcher, E., ‘The Yueh-chih and Kaniska in the Chinese sources’, in A.L. Basham(Ed.), Papers on the Date of Kaniska ( Leiden: E.J. Brill , 1968), pp. 346–90. Some of the Chinese sentences are translated from the Hou Hanshu, and the Weishu (History of Wei Dynasty) (AD 220–280) and can be found in the Sanguo Zhi (History of the Three Kingdoms) by Chen Shou (completed AD 290), included in Geng, op. cit., pp. 16–19.
• For archaeological evidence of overland trade between India and China during the Han period (BC 206–AD 220), see, Schulyer Cammann , ‘ Archeological Evidence for Chinese Contacts with India during the Han Dynasty ’, Sinologica, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1956, pp. 1–19 .
• Beal, Samuel, Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World, translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang (AD 624) (London 1884; reprinted, Delhi: Orient Books, 1969). In addition to Xuanzang, it also contains a translation of Fa Xian's Foguo-Ji (Record of the Buddhist Countries), and the Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei Sang (which forms the fifth section of the work Luoyang Qielan Ji, op. cit.) (AD 518). There are other translations of Fa Xian's account, by James Legge and H.A. Giles (see later), the latest being the translation by Li Yong-hsi, A Record of the Buddhist Countries ( Beijing: Sun Shi Buddhist Institute , reprinted 1956), Tiwari's Pilgrim's B.H., Kathmandu. It provides a very good introduction to Fa Xian's life and activities.
• Change Qu, Huayangguo Zhi (Record of the Country South of the Mount Hua) (347). This is a very im-portant record cited in the present writer's article, ‘ The Southern Silk Route from China to India—An Approach from India ’, China Report, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1995, pp. 177–96 .[Free Full Text]
• Chen Shou, Sanguo Zhi (Records of History of the Three Kingdoms) (AD 220–280) (completed in Jin Dynasty around AD 290) (see reference details under Zurcher, given in the Bibliography for Lecture Six).
• Feng Chengjun, Zhng, Zhongguo Nanyang Jiatong Shi (History of Relations of China with South-East Asian Countries through History). Most English language authors have drawn data from this work.
• Giles, H.A. (tr.), The Travels of Fa Hsien (399–414) or Record of Budhistic Kingdoms ( Shanghai and London, 1877; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press , 1923).
• Hirth, F. and W.W. Rockhill, Chau Jukua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chih ( New York: Paragon Book, reprint , 1966 [first published in 1911]). The introduction gives useful information about early Chinese contacts abroad; Jia Dan's voyage to India and beyond is given on pp. 10–14.
• Hsu Yunts'iao (Xu Yunqiao) (Ed.), Kangtai Wushi Waiguo Zhuan Jizhu (Annotated Collection of Kang Tai's Accounts of Foreign Countries during Wu Dynasty) ( Singapore: South-east Asian Research Institute , 1971). This is the only comprehensive collection of Kang Tai and Zhu Ying's reports on India based on the accounts of the Funan envoys to India.
• Hui Chao, Wang Qu Tianzhu Guo Zhuan (Memoir of the Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India); original text translated and edited by Yang Hansung, Jan Yunhua et al., under the title The Hye-Ch'o Diary: Memoir of the Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India ( Korea: Asian Humanities Press , 1985).
• Hui Jiao, Gaoseng Zhuan (Biography of Outstanding Monks) (written between AD 519 and 554). It provided details about Buddhist monks, especially those famous for their learning and philosophical eminence.
• Hui Li, Daci-en Si Sancang Fashi Zhuan (Life of Xuanzang, The Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci En Monastery) (Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing , 1983). For translation, see later).
• Ji Han, Nanfang Caomu Zhi (Accounts of the Plants and trees of the Southern Region) (Third century AD). The work gives many names of medicinal and other herbs of Indian origin.
• Ji Xianlin et al. (Eds), Da Tang Xiyu Ji Jiaozhu Tang Xuanzang Bianji Yuanzhu (Xuanzang and Bianji's Journey to the Western Region during the Tang Dynasty Annotated) (Zhonghua Shuju edition, Beijing , 1985). It has extensive commentary on the results of modern research on the subject.
• Ji Xianlin (Chi Hsien-lin), Zhongguo cansi shuru Yindude chubu yanjiu (Preliminary Study of the Problem of Introduction of Chinese Silk into India). First published in 1955, later included in Wang Shuying (Ed.), Zhongyin Wenhua Jiaoliu Yu bijao (Sino-Indian Cultural Exchanges and Comparative Study) ( Beijing: Zhongguo Huaqiao Chubanshe [Overseas Chinese Publishing Company] , 1994), pp. 34–88.
• ‘Zhongguo zhi he zaozhifa shuru Yindude shijian, he didian wenti’ (The Time and Place of Introduc-tion into India of Chinese Paper and its Manufacture); first published in 1954, and later included in Wang Shuying (Ed.), op. cit., pp. 1–33.
• Laufer, B., Sino-Iranica, Anthropology Series No. 201 ( Chicago , 1919). This is an invaluable source un-earthing hitherto unknown Chinese sources throwing a great deal of light on Iranian history and dif-ferent flora and fauna. The author draws profusely on Chinese, Tibetan, Persian, Sanskrit and other linguistic sources.
• Legge, James (tr.), A Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms ( Oxford: Oxford University Press , 1886).
• Levi, M. Sylvain, The Mission of Wang Hiuen-ts'e in India, translated from the original French by S.P. Chatterjee (Calcutta: Indian Geographical Society , 1967). It gives a critical evaluation of this general's missions to India and his encounter with the usurper of the throne after Harsa's death. Translations of Chinese texts are provided.
• Li Dao Yuan, Shuijing Zhu (Commentary on the Waterways Classic) (late fifth or early sixth century AD). This is an extended geographical account, and its information on northern India is one of the earliest.
• Liu Hsu, Jiu Tang Shu (Old History of the Tang Dynasty) (618–907) (completed AD 945); some passages have been translated by Frankel.
• Li Yung-hsi (tr.), The Life of Hsuan-Tsang: The Tripitaka Master of the Great Tz'u En (Compassionate) Monastery, compiled by Monk Hui Li ( Peking: The Chinese Buddhist Association , 1959).
• Moule, A.C., ‘ Some Foreign Birds and Beasts in Chinese Books ’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (G.B.), 1925, p. 258f .
• Mukherji, B.N., Kharosthi and Kharoshthi Brahmi Inscriptions in West Bengal (India), Indian Museum Bulletin No. 25, Calcutta , 1990.
• Nath, Jagan, ‘ The Location of the Tchina Temple as the Original Home of the Imperial Guptas ’, Indian Historical Quarterly, XXII, 1946, pp. 28–33 .
• Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi, Xin Tangshu (New History of the Tang Dynasty) (completed 1061). This is an updated and more informative history of the dynasty. The authors of both these histories utilise sources belonging to the period under reference only but the later historians, especially Ouyang Xiu, improved the work in details and with thoroughness.
• Petech, L., Northern India According to Shui-ching-chu ( Rome: Is. M.E.O. , 1950). It makes a comparative analysis of the data given in the Chinese classic quoted in the aforementioned reference for Li Dao Yuan.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ Geographical Notes on Xuanzang's Travel in the East and Northeast India ’ (as described in J.X of Xiyu Ji), Roop-Lekha, LXIV–LXVI, March, 1997, pp. 28–33 .
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ Geographical Notes on Xuanzang's Account—Northeast India and Orissa: Xiyu Ji, j. X ’, China Report, Vol. 34, No. 1, 1998, pp. 87–92 .[Free Full Text]
• Takakusu, J., A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago, by I-tsing ( London: Clarendon Press , 1896; reprinted, Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal , 1966) (being the trans-lation of the Chinese text Nanhai Jiguinei Fazhuan Jiaozhu, mentioned later).
• Wang Bangwei (Ed.), Da Tang Xiyu Qufa Gaoseng Zhuan Jiaozhu (Biography of the Outstanding Monks in the Great Tang Dynasty who went to the West to Learn Buddhism) (Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing, 1988). A substantial portion of the work has been translated from the Taisho edition by Lotika Lahiri in Chinese Monks in India ( Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas) .
• Wang Bangwei (Ed.), Nanhai Jiguinei Fazhuan Jiaozhu (Yijing's Record of the Buddhist Religion Sent Home from the Southern Sea) ( Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing , 1995).
• Wang Gungwu, ‘ The Nanhai Trade ’, Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Soceity (JMBRAS), XXXI, 1958, pp. 1–135 .
• Wang Jinruo et al., Cefu Yangui (literally, First Tortoise of the Imperial Achieves), compiled AD 1005–1013. It is a huge but little known collection of 1,000 chapter-juans, containing material of historical importance to India. Although scattered in various parts of the work, the data are a valuable source for the pre-Song period. Relevant portions have been quoted in Geng, op. cit., part II, pp. 634–44.
• Xinru Liu, Ancient India and Ancient China: Trade and Religious Exchanges, AD 1–600 ( Delhi: Oxford University Press , 1988).
• Yang Xuanzhi, Luoyang Qielan Ji (Description of the Buddhist Temples and Monasteries [Sangharamas] at Luoyang, capital of China) (AD 547).
• Zhang Hua, Bowu Zhi (Notes on the Investigation of Things) (written between 276 and 290). This contains names and descriptions of things, many of which are from India, for example, beryl, precious stones.
• Fang Hao, Zhongxi Jiaotong Shi (History of Sino-Western Communication), Vol. I (Shanghai, reprint 1987). It covers from the earliest times upto the end of the Song dynasty (1279), while pp. 453 to 598 in Vol. II deal with the Yuan dynasty. A very competent and comprehensive treatment of the subject.
• Geng Yinzeng (Ed.), op. cit., pp. 561–842, contain excerpts from all important Chinese historical accounts of the period.
• Hirth, F. and W.W. Rockhill (Eds), Chau Ju-kua, His work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, entitled Chu-fan-chih (1911; reprinted, New York: Paragon Reprint , 1966). The original text is given separately in Vol. 2. Edited with translation, it provides extensive details on all aspects of the period.
• Jitsuzo Kuwabara, ‘ On P'u Shou-keng: A Man of the Western Regions, who was the Superintendent of the Trading Ships Office in Ch'uanchou towards the End of the Sung Dynasty, together with a Gen-eral Sketch of Trade of the Arabs in China during the Tang and Sung Eras ’, Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko, No. 2, 1928, pp. 1–79; and No. 7, 1935, pp. 1–104 .
• Jungpang Lo, ‘ The Emergence of China as a Sea Power during the Late Sung and Early Yuan Periods ’, Far Eastern Quarterly, Vol. XIV, No. 4, 1955, pp. 489–503 .
• Lo Hsianglin, ‘ On the Voyage of Soli Samudra, Chola's Envoy to China in AD 1015 ’, Proceedings of the First International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Kuala Lumpur, 1968, pp. 509–20 .
• Ma Duanlin, Wenxian Tongkao (Comprehensive Enquiry into Documentary Sources). This was started during the Song Dynasty in 1270 and finished before 1317 during the Yuan dynasty and printed in 1322. A comprehensive study of sources often referred to by both Chinese and other scholars.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ Indian Settlements in Medieval China: A Preliminary Study ’, The Indian Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1989, pp. 68–82 .
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ Identity of the Fugitive King of South India who Sought China's Help during Late Thirteenth Century AD ’, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 56th session (R.B. University, Calcutta, 1996), pp. 165–71 .
• Rockhill, W.W., ‘Notes on the Relation and Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago and the Coast of the Indian Ocean during the Fourteenth Century’, Part I, T'oung Pao, XV, 1914, pp. 419–47. This deals with China's external trade, ban on trade and the monetary policy of China during the late Song and Yuan dynasties.
• Schurmann, H.F., Economic Structure of the Yuan Dynaty ( Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press , 1956). In addition to detailed treatment of the subject, it gives extensive translation of chapters on economy.
• Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror (of History) for Aid in Government), completed between 1065 and 1084. Chronological annals for the period from 403 BC to AD 959.
• Song Huiyao Gao (Drafts for the Essential Records of the Song Dynasty; also translated as Drafts for the History of the Administrative Statutes of the Song Dynasty), collected by Xu Song (1800) from the encyclopedia, Yongle Dadian (see Bibliography of Ming period).
• Song Lian et al., Yuanshi (History of Yuan [Mongol] Dynasty) (1370).
• Su Jiqing (Ed.), Daoyi Zhilue Jiaoshi (Records of the Foreign Islands by Wang Dayuan, Annotated) (1350) (1965; reprint Beijing , 1981 [additional notes by Liang Yaonan]).
• Taiping Yulan (Taiping Reign Period Imperial Encyclopaedia) (literally, The Emperor's Daily Readings). A great Imperial Encyclopedia compiled during Taiping reign period (976–983) by Li Fang (983).
• Tan Yeok-seong, ‘ The Sri Vijayan Inscription of Canton (AD 1079) ’, Journal of Southeast Asian History, Vol. V, No. 2, 1964, pp. 17–24 .
• Tuo Tuo (Toktaga) and Ouyang Xiu, Songshi (History of Song Dynasty, 960–1279) (completed 1345).
• Wang Huifang, ‘Quanzhou wan chutu Songdai haichuande jinkou yaowu zai zhongguo yiyao shishangde jiazhi’ (The imported medicinal items found in the Song dynasty oceangoing ship excavated at Quanzhu Bay and its value in the history of Chinese medicine), in Quanzhouwan Songdai haichuan fajue yu yanjiu (Discovery and study of the Song Dynasty ocean-going ship in Quanzhou Bay), edited by the Overseas Communication History Museum of Quanzhou ( Beijing , 1987), pp. 122–27.
• Wheatley, P., ‘ Geographical notes on some commodities involved in Sung maritime trade ’, Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, XXX, 1959, pp. 5–140 .
• Yu Changshen, ‘Songchao Zhulian guo shichen rugong Zhongguo kao’ (A Study of Tribute Missions from the Chola Country during Song Dynasty), Haijiaoshi Yanjiu (Studies in the History of Maritime Communications), No. 2, 1986, pp. 33–37.
• Yuanchao Bishi (Secret History of the Yuan Dynasty, originally called Menggu Bishi, that is, Secret History of the Mongols).Writer's name not known; compiled during the mid-thirteenth century AD, it is a very important work for the knowledge of the early history of the Mongols, specially about Chenghiz Khan. Originally written in the Mongolian language, it was later transliterated and translated into Chinese during Ming Dynasty. The late Dr K.S. Wei of Visva Bharati had worked on it, his work being entitled The Secret History of the Mongols. It was published by the Aligarh Muslim University , probably during the late 1940s.
• Zhao Rugua, Zhufan Zhi (Records of Foreign Peoples) (1225, or between 1242 and 1258). It is based primarily on the Lingwai Daida with extensive details on the products of Asia.
• Zhou Qufei, Lingwai Daida (Information on What is Beyond the Passes) (1178).
• Zhu Yu, Ping Zhou Ketan (Ping Zhou Chats) (1119), Congshu Jicheng edition. Bk 2754, juan 2, p. 18 contains references to foreign merchants in China.
• Bagchi, P.C., ‘ Political Relations between Bengal and China in the Pathan Period ’, Visva Bharati Annals, Vol. 1, 1945, pp. 96–134 .
• Fang Hao, Zhongxi Jiaotong Shi (History of Sino-Western Communication), Vol. 2 Shanghai reprint, 1987), pp. 599–1075 deal with Ming and Qing (1644–1911) periods.
• Fei Xin, Xingcha Shenglan (Overall Survey of the Star Raft) (1436), Ed. by Feng Chengjun under the title Xingcha Shenglan Jiaozhu (1934; reprinted Taipei, 1970).
• Feng Chengjun (Ed.), Yingyai Shenglan Jiaozhu (1433) (Ma Huan's Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores Annotated) (1934; reprinted Taipei, 1970).
• Fu Weilin, Mingshu (Annals of Ming Dynasty) (completed during the early Kangxi period of the Qing dynasty, 1662–1722), Congshu Jicheng edition, books 3939–3958).
• Geng Yinzeng, op. cit., Vol. 2, pp. 843–1177 . This includes most of the relevant passages from various historical works on the Ming dynasty, and also includes some works of the late eighteenth century of minor importance.
• Gu Yanwu, Tianxia Junguo Libing Shu (The Merits and Drawbacks of Different Regions of China) (1562), reprinted from the 1879 edition. (Visva-Bharati University has a copy.) A highly critical evaluation of the regime with details on Japanese incursions on the coastal area of the empire.
• Gu Yingtai, Mingshi Jishi Benmo (Narratives of Ming dynasty from Beginning to End) (1658), Congshu Jicheng edition, books 3920–3921.
• Huang Zhangjian (Ed.), Ming Shilu (The Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty). A critically edited version has been published by the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica (Taipei, 1961–66), which comprises more than 150 volumes. The Delhi University Department of East Asian Studies possesses a set; the National Library, Calcutta, also has a set of an earlier woodcut print known as the Jiangsu version.
• Hyule, H. Cordier, Cathay and the Way Thither, Hakluyt Society, Vols I, II (1915), III, IV (191) (republished, Taipei, 1966).
• Ji Huang, Xu Wenxian Tongkao (Supplement to the Comprehensive Enquiry into Documentary Sources) (1749, edited during Qian Long reign period of the Qing dynasty [1736–1795], reprinted Taipei, 1962. Originally started by Wang Qi).
• Li Dongyang (Ming Dynasty), Da Ming Huidian (Statutes of the Great Ming Dynasty); revised by Shen Shixing et al. (Wenhai Chubanshe reprint, Taipei, 1964). This gives detailed lists of the missions and the tribute-trade items exchanged.
• Liansheng Yang, Money and Credit in China ( Cambridge: Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series XII, Harvard University Press , 1952).
• Lin Renchuan, ‘Mingdai siren haishang maoyi shangren yu ekou’ (Private Maritime Traders and the Japanese Pirates during the Ming Dynasty), in Zhongguoshi Yanjiu (Studies in Chinese History), No. 4, 1980, pp. 94–108.
• Mills, J.V.G. (tr.) Ma Huan: Yingyai Sheng Lan, The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores (1433), Hakluyt Society, extra series No. XLII ( Cambridge , 1970). This is a complete translation of Feng Chengjun's work, with an introduction and comprehensive geographical data.
• Ray, Haraprasad, Trade and Diplomacy in India-China Relations: A Study of Bengal during the Fifteenth Century ( Delhi: Radiant , 1993). Based primarily on Chinese data, this work solves many of the riddles hitherto unsolved and identifies textile and other terms. It also gives a detailed account of Bengal's socio-economic conditions and Sino-Indian political relations.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘Bengal's Textile Products Involved in Ming Trade during Zheng He's Voyages to the Indian Ocean and Identification of the Hitherto Undeciphered Textiles’, in R.P. Tak and D. Rothermund (Eds), Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs in Asian Maritime Trade, C. 1400–1750 ( Heidelberg: University of Heidelberg , 1991), pp. 81–93.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ Calicut as Known to China during the Fifteenth Century ’, Journal of Indian Ocean Studies, Vol. 2, No. 3, July 1995, pp. 243–58 .
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ Orissa and Orissan Trade in Chinese Historical Records ’, Journal of Indian Ocean Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1994, pp. 36–46 .
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ Cochin (Kochi) and China before the European Discovery of the East ’, Journal of Indian Ocean Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, November 1997, pp. 35–45 .
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘Southeast Asian Connection in Sino-Indian Trade’, in Rosemary Scott and John Guy (Eds), Colloquies on Art and Archaeology in Asia, No. 17, ( London: School of Oriental and African Studeis, University of London , 1995), pp. 41–54.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘China and the "Western Ocean" in the Fifteenth Century’, in Satish Chandra (Ed.), The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics ( New Delhi: Sage , 1987), pp. 109–24.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ An Analysis of the Chinese Maritime Voyages into the Indian Ocean during Early Ming Dynasty, and their Raison d'etre ’, China Report, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1987, pp. 65–87 .[Free Full Text]
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ The Eighth Voyage of the Dragon That Never Was: An Enquiry into the Causes of Cessation of the Voyages during early Ming Dynasty ’, China Report, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1987, pp. 157–78 .[Free Full Text]
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘The Eastern Ocean and the Western Ocean—Chinese Involvement in the Geopolitics of the Pacific and the Indian Ocean Region prior to the Advent of Portuguese Power’, in Francis A. Dutra and J. Camilo dos Santos (Eds), Proceedings of the International Colloquium on the Portuguese and the Pacific ( Santa Barbara: University of California , 1995), pp. 364–80.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘An Enquiry into the Presence of the Chinese in South and Southeast Asia after the Voyages of Zheng He in Early Fifteenth Century’, in K.S. Mathew(Ed.), Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies in Maritime History ( Delhi , 1995), pp. 97–109.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘Indian Settlements in China—An Exploration of the Phenomenon of Indian Diaspora from AD 1400–1800’ ( Pondicherry University , 1996), pp. 52–81.
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ Nature of Trade and Diplomacy between India and China during Ancient and Medieval Periods ’, Asia-Prashant; Journal of the Indian Congress of Asian and Pacific Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, October 1994, pp. 32–40 .
• Ray, Haraprasad, ‘ Indians in China: A Historical Survey ’, Journal of Historical Studies, Vol. 2, December 1996, pp. 1–13 .
• Shen Mousheng, Haiguo Guangji (Detailed Accounts of the Oceanic Countries), one of the four parts of Siyi Guangji (Detailed Accounts of the Various Foreign Countries), late Wanli period, early seventeenth century AD. It contains a detailed description of Bengal collected from various fifteenth century sources, with a vocabulary list of Bengali–Chinese words. The Bengali words are written probably in the fifteenth–sixteenth century Bengali script (included in Xuanlan Tang Congshu Xu Jiben, pp. 606–27).
• Tan Qian (1594–1658), Guoque (National Deliberations [1653]; Beijing, 1958). It is a comprehensive history of the entire Ming period in the annalistic pattern, giving minute details and comments on matters not found in other works.
• Wang Gulu (tr.), ‘Zheng He Xizheng Kao’ (Zheng He's Expeditions to the West), Wenzhe Jikan (Quar-terly Journal of Literature and Philosophy, Wuhan University, IV, 1934–35, pp. 373–416, 851–89. This is a translation of T. Yamamoto's article in Japanese in Toyo Gakuho, XXI, 1933–34, pp. 374–404, 506–56.
• Wang Gungwu, ‘Public and Private Trade in Chinese History’, in M. Mollat (Ed.), op. cit., pp. 215–26.
• Wang Gungwu, ‘The Opening of Relations between China and Malacca, 1403–5’, in John Bastin and R. Roolvink (Eds), Malayan and Indonesian Studies ( Oxford: Oxford University Press , 1964), pp. 87–104
• Watanabe, H., ‘ An Index of Embassies and Tribute Missions from Islamic Countries to Ming China (1368–1466) as recorded in the Ming Shih-lu classified according to Geographic Area ’, Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko, Vol. 33, The Toyo Bunko, 1975, pp. 295–347 .
• Wheatley, P., Golden Khersonese ( Kuala Lumpur: University of Malay Press , 1961).
• Williams, S.W., The Chinese Commercial Guide (originally published by Oxford University Press, 1859; reprinted Hong Kong: Oxford University Press , 1966).
• Wu Han, ‘Mingchu shehui shengchanlide fazhan’ (Development of Social Productive Forces during Early Ming Dynasty), Lishi Yanjiu (Journal of Historical Research), No. 3, 1955, pp. 53–83. One of the earliest attempts at a Marxist interpretation of the productive forces during this dynasty.
• Xiang D. (Ed.), Xiyang Fanguo Zhi (Ming) Gong Zhen Zhu (Gong Zhen's Record of Foreign Countries in the Western Ocean) (1434) (Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 1961).
• Xiang D. Liangzhong Haidao Zhenjing (Two Works on Sailing Directions for Sea Routes) ( Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju , 1961). It includes two works on compass bearing rutters and sailing directions.
• Xiang D. Zheng He Hanghai Tu (Charts of Zheng He's Voyages), second imprint ( Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju , 1982).
• Xie Fang (Ed.), Xiyang Chaogong Dianlu (Ming) Huang Shengceng Zhu (Records of Tributes from the Western Ocean Countries by Huang Shengceng of the Ming Dynasty [1520] ( Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju Book Company , 1982). This work and its author have been discussed and the notices on Indian states have been translated in aforementioned Ray (1993).
• Xie Jin (1407) (Ed.), Yongle Dadian (Great Encyclopaedia of the Yongle Reign Period (1403–1424). It had a total of 22,877 Chapter-Juans in 11,095 works (ben), of which only 370 are still extant.
• Yan Congjian, Shuyu Zhouzi Lu (Records of Dispatches Concerning the Different Countries) (1574), Old Palace Museum Library ed. (Beijing, 1930). The notice on Bengal has been translated by P.C. Bagchi (1945), aforementioned.
• Zhang Tingyu, Mingshi (History of the Ming Dynasty) (1739).
• Zhang Weihua, Mingdai Haiwai Maoyi Jianlun (A Short History of Overseas Trade during the Ming Dynasty) ( Shanghai: Xuexi Shenghuo Chubanshe Publishers , 1955).
• Zhou Shide, ‘Cong baochuanchang dougande jianding tuilun Zheng He baochuan’.
• Beal, S., op. cit., p. LXXI (see the reference details in bibliography of Lecture Seven).
• Cihai (Ocean of Words), one volume edition ( Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicon Publishers , 1979), p. 1304.
• Geng Yinzeng, op. cit., p. 253.
• Ghosh, A., An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology ( New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal , 1984), pp. 365–68.
• Hsu Yunts'iao (Ed.), Collection of Kang Tai Notices, etc., op. cit., pp. 43, 48 (in Chinese).
• Lefmann, S. L. (Ed.), Lalita-vistara Halle (1902, 1908), Ch. X, p. 125.
• Petech, L., Northern India, etc., op. cit., p. 54 (see the reference details in bibliography of Lecture Seven).
• Sinha, Nirmal Chandra, ‘ India and Tibet ’, Bulletin of Tibetology, New Series, No. 3, 1977, p. 23 .
• Sukumar Sen, Banga Bhumika (An Introduction to Banga) (in Bengali) ( Calcutta: Eastern Publishers , 1974), p. 6.
• Ray, Haraprasad, India, South-east Asia and China: Some Historical Issues, ND training, Eastern Adhir Chakravarti Memorial Lecture, 1998 ( Kolkata: Centre for Archaeological Studies India , 1999).
• Ray, Haraprasad, Trade and Trade Routes between India and China, c. 140 BC–AD 1500 ( Kolkata: Progressive Publishers , 2003).
• Ray, Haraprasad, North-east India's Place in India-China Relations and Its Future Role in India's Economy ( Kolkata: Institute of Historical Studies , 2003).
• Ray, Haraprasad, Chinese Sources of South Asian History in Translation: Data for Study of India-China Relations through History, Vol. I (from the Earliest to Early Sixth Century AD) ( Kolkata: The Asiatic Society Kolkata , 2003).
• Tan Chung, Geng Yin-zeng, India and China: Twenty Centuries of Civilisational Interaction and Vibrations ( New Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations , 2005).
• Ray, Haraprasad, Chinese Sources of South Asian History in Translation: Data for Study of India-China Relations through History, Vol. II (Kang Tai's Accounts and Shuijingzhu [Commentary on Water Classic]) ( Kolkata: The Asiatic Society Kolkata , 2007).
• Sen, Tansen, Buddhism, Diplomacy and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations, 600–1400 ( Delhi: Manohar , 2004).
• Xinru Liu, Silk and Religion: An Exploration of Material Life and the Thought of People, AD 600–1200 ( New Delhi: Oxford University Press , 1998).

China Report, Vol. 43, No. 4, 501-520 (2007)
DOI: 10.1177/000944550704300407


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